Cerebral contusion is a focal bruise of the brain parenchyma resulting from traumatic brain injury (TBI), occurring in up to 8.2% of all TBI cases and 13–35% of severe TBI cases. [1] Contusions are a dynamic lesion — 25–45% will enlarge significantly on follow-up imaging, making serial neurological monitoring essential. [2]
1. History
- Mechanism of injury: Falls, motor vehicle collisions, assaults, sports injuries — determine energy transfer (high vs. low velocity)
- Loss of consciousness (LOC): Duration, witnessed vs. unwitnessed
- Post-traumatic amnesia (PTA): Anterograde and retrograde; duration >30 min is a risk factor for significant intracranial injury [3]
- Timing: Lucid interval followed by deterioration is a classic pattern — 13% of patients with severe TBI were completely lucid before neurological deterioration from delayed hematoma [3]
- Symptoms: Headache (severity, progression), vomiting (number of episodes), confusion, visual changes, weakness, seizure activity
- Important negatives: Anticoagulant/antiplatelet use, intoxication (alcohol, drugs), prior neurosurgery, bleeding disorders
2. Alarm Features
- GCS <15 at 2 hours post-injury or any decline in GCS [3-4]
- Pupillary asymmetry or unreactive pupils — suggests uncal herniation [5]
- Post-traumatic seizure [3]
- Signs of basal skull fracture: Raccoon eyes, Battle's sign, hemotympanum, CSF otorrhea/rhinorrhea [3]
- Repeated vomiting (>1 episode) [4]
- Lucid interval followed by deterioration — delayed hematoma accounted for 62% of avoidable "talk and die" deaths [3]
- Focal neurological deficit (new hemiparesis, aphasia)
- Midline shift or basal cistern effacement on CT — strongest predictors of clinical deterioration and need for surgery [1][6]
3. Medications
Seizure prophylaxis
- Levetiracetam 500–1000 mg IV/PO BID or phenytoin (loading dose 15–20 mg/kg IV) for 7 days only — both are similar in efficacy for early post-traumatic seizures (PTS) [5][7]
- Levetiracetam is increasingly preferred due to fewer drug interactions and a better safety profile; pyridoxine 50–100 mg daily may mitigate behavioral side effects [5]
- Valproic acid is not recommended due to increased mortality risk compared to phenytoin [5]
- Prophylaxis beyond 7 days is not recommended — it does not prevent late post-traumatic epilepsy [5][7]
ICP management (tiered approach)
Anticoagulant reversal
- Warfarin: 4-factor PCC (10–50 units/kg based on INR) + IV vitamin K 10 mg; do not delay reversal for labs [5][8]
- DOACs: 4-factor PCC; idarucizumab for dabigatran specifically [5][9]
- Routine platelet transfusion for antiplatelet reversal is not recommended [5][9]
Tranexamic acid (TXA)
- mild-to-moderate TBIno benefit in severe TBI[10-14]
Medications to avoid
- Anticoagulants and antiplatelets should be held acutely
- NSAIDs (bleeding risk)
- Excessive sedation that obscures neurological exam
4. Diet
- NPO initially if surgical intervention is possible or GCS is depressed
- Advance to regular diet as tolerated once airway is secure and no surgical plan
- Early enteral nutrition (within 24–72 hours) is recommended in ICU patients with severe TBI to reduce mortality
- Adequate hydration; avoid hypotonic fluids (risk of cerebral edema)
5. Review of Systems
- Neurological: Headache, confusion, memory loss, vision changes, weakness, numbness, speech difficulty, seizures
- ENT: Rhinorrhea, otorrhea (CSF leak), hearing loss
- GI: Nausea, vomiting (frequency is prognostically important)
- Psychiatric: Agitation, personality changes, suicidal ideation (TBI increases suicide risk) [15]
- Musculoskeletal: Concurrent cervical spine injury, extremity injuries
6. Collateral History and Family History
- Collateral: Witnesses to the event, duration of LOC, pre-hospital GCS, mechanism details, baseline mental status
- Medication list: Anticoagulants, antiplatelets, antiepileptics — critical for management decisions [5][16]
- Social context: Alcohol/drug intoxication (present in ~13% of mild TBI), elder abuse, non-accidental trauma
- Family history: Bleeding disorders, cerebral aneurysms
7. Risk Factors
- Age >60–65 years — independent risk factor for worse outcomes and contusion progression [3][17]
- Anticoagulant/antiplatelet use — increases risk of intracranial hemorrhage; 20–30% of older adults are on these agents [9]
- Coagulopathy (acquired or congenital) [8]
- Dangerous mechanism: Pedestrian struck, ejection from vehicle, fall >1 m or >5 stairs [18]
- Alcohol intoxication — impairs exam reliability and lowers threshold for imaging [19]
- Prior TBI — increases vulnerability to subsequent injury
- Lower GCS verbal score — predicts larger initial contusion volume and contusion expansion [17]
8. Differential Diagnosis
- Epidural hematoma (EDH): Biconvex/lenticular hyperdensity, often with lucid interval; typically associated with temporal bone fracture and middle meningeal artery injury
- Acute subdural hematoma (SDH): Crescent-shaped collection; often coexists with contusions
- Traumatic subarachnoid hemorrhage (tSAH): Blood in sulci/cisterns; frequently accompanies contusions [20]
- Diffuse axonal injury (DAI): May have normal initial CT; MRI shows petechial hemorrhages at gray-white junction; associated with rotational/shearing forces [21]
- Cerebral venous sinus thrombosis: Consider if hemorrhagic pattern is atypical for trauma
- Hemorrhagic stroke (non-traumatic): If mechanism is unclear, consider spontaneous ICH, especially in hypertensive patients
- Cerebral contusion mimics: Hemorrhagic tumor (metastasis, glioblastoma) — consider if no clear trauma history or atypical location
9. Past Medical History
- Prior TBI or neurosurgical procedures
- Seizure disorder (pre-existing)
- Bleeding diatheses or liver disease (coagulopathy)
- Chronic alcohol use (brain atrophy increases bridging vein stretch → higher risk of concurrent SDH)
- Comorbidities: Cirrhosis, diabetes, immunosuppression — all increase risk [3]
10. Physical Exam
Vital signs
- Cushing's triad (hypertension, bradycardia, irregular respirations) — late sign of herniation
- Hypotension is rarely from isolated TBI — search for extracranial hemorrhage
Neurological exam
- GCS — document E, V, M components separately; serial reassessment is critical [5][22]
- Pupillary reactivity — asymmetry or fixed/dilated pupil suggests ipsilateral uncal herniation; quantitative pupillometry is more reliable than clinical assessment [5]
- Focal motor deficits, cranial nerve palsies
- Cerebellar signs if posterior fossa involvement
Head/face
- Scalp lacerations, hematomas, palpable step-off (depressed fracture)
- Periorbital ecchymosis (raccoon eyes), mastoid ecchymosis (Battle's sign)
- Hemotympanum, CSF leak from ears/nose
Cervical spine: Assume concurrent C-spine injury until cleared
11. Lab Studies
- CBC: Baseline hemoglobin, platelet count (maintain >100 × 10⁹/L in TBI) [8]
- Coagulation studies: PT/INR, aPTT — essential if on anticoagulants or suspected coagulopathy [5]
- BMP: Sodium (hyponatremia from SIADH or cerebral salt wasting), glucose
- Type and screen: In case of surgical intervention
- Blood alcohol level and urine drug screen: Intoxication affects exam reliability [19]
- Serum lactate: Marker of systemic perfusion
- DOAC-specific assays (anti-Xa activity, thrombin time) if available, though normal values do not rule out therapeutic concentrations [5]
12. Imaging
First-line: Non-contrast CT head
- Gold standard for acute evaluation — identifies contusions as hyperdense (hemorrhagic) or mixed-density lesions, typically in frontal and temporal poles (coup-contrecoup pattern) [3]
- CT also identifies associated injuries: SDH, EDH, tSAH, skull fractures, midline shift, cistern effacement
Repeat CT
- For GCS ≤12: Repeat within 6–12 hours — progression occurs in 25–45% of contusions [2][23]
- For mild TBI (GCS 13–15) with positive CT: Routine repeat may not be necessary if neurologically stable and contusion is small (<10 mL) and convexity-based [19]
- Any neurological deterioration → urgent repeat CT immediately [23]
MRI
- More sensitive for DAI, small contusions, and posterior fossa lesions
- Not first-line in the acute setting but useful for prognostication and subacute evaluation
CT angiography: Consider if skull base fracture involves carotid canal or if penetrating injury [2]
13. Special Tests
Clinical decision rules (for mild TBI — determining need for CT):
- Canadian CT Head Rule (CCHR): 100% sensitive for neurosurgical lesions, 68.7% specific — preferred for specificity [4][18]
- New Orleans Criteria (NOC): 100% sensitive but only 12.1% specific [3][18]
CT severity scoring systems
- Marshall ClassificationRotterdam ScoreHelsinki Score[24-25]
Prognostic factors for contusion expansion
- Lower GCS verbal score predicts both larger initial volume and expansion [17]
- Subfrontal/temporal location and volume >10 mL are imaging predictors of progression [19]
14. ECG
- ECG is indicated to evaluate for neurogenic cardiac changes (ST changes, QT prolongation, T-wave inversions) that can occur with severe TBI
- Rule out arrhythmia as a cause of syncope leading to the fall/trauma (especially in elderly)
- Monitor for Cushing reflex-associated bradycardia
15. Assessment
Cerebral contusion is a dynamic, evolving lesion that requires vigilant monitoring. Key prognostic factors include age, admission GCS score, initial contusion volume, and radiological progression (midline shift, cistern effacement). [1][17][26] Contusions cluster with SAH and SDH on CT and this pattern is associated with incomplete recovery at 1 year (OR 1.80 in TRACK-TBI; OR 2.73 in CENTER-TBI). [20]
Severity stratification
- Clinically unimportant: Solitary contusion <5 mm, neurologically intact [4]
- Moderate risk: Contusion >10 mL, subfrontal/temporal location, on anticoagulants, age >65 [19]
- High risk: Contusion ≥15 mL, midline shift, cistern effacement, declining GCS [1][27]
16. Treatment Plan
Initial stabilization (ATLS principles)
- ABCs, C-spine immobilization
- Maintain SBP ≥100 mmHg (avoid hypotension — secondary brain injury)
- Maintain CPP 60–70 mmHg in monitored patients [5]
- Head of bed elevated 30°
- Avoid hyperthermia, hyperglycemia, hypoxia
Medical management
- Seizure prophylaxis × 7 days (levetiracetam or phenytoin) if risk factors present [5][7]
- Reverse anticoagulation emergently if applicable [5]
- Osmotic therapy (mannitol or hypertonic saline) for elevated ICP [5]
- Analgesics: Acetaminophen preferred; avoid NSAIDs acutely
Surgical indications: [5][27]
- Large contusion/hematoma >25 mL — consider evacuation before neurological deterioration
- Clinical deterioration + increasing midline shift/cistern compression — most reasonable indicator for surgery [1]
- Posterior fossa lesions have a lower threshold for surgical intervention [5]
- Decompressive craniectomy (≥12 × 15 cm) for refractory intracranial hypertension [27]
17. Disposition
Admit (ICU or neuro-observation)
- Any contusion on CT with GCS <15 or neurological deficits
- Contusion ≥10 mL or subfrontal/temporal location [19]
- Patients on anticoagulants with intracranial hemorrhage
- GCS ≤12 — ICU admission with ICP monitoring consideration
- Unreliable exam (intoxication, sedation) [19]
Observation unit (6–8 hours)
Neurosurgery consultation
- All patients with cerebral contusion on CT should have neurosurgical consultation
- Urgent for: midline shift, cistern effacement, contusion >25 mL, declining GCS [5]
Transfer criteria
18. Follow Up / Return Precautions
Follow-up timing
- Neurosurgery follow-up within 2–4 weeks for non-operative contusions
- Repeat outpatient CT is not routinely necessary in asymptomatic patients — only 2.9% had new findings and only 1% had a change in management [28]
- Reserve outpatient imaging for patients with significant or focal neurological symptoms [28]
Return precautions (instruct patient/caregiver)
- Worsening headache, repeated vomiting, new weakness or numbness
- Increasing confusion, difficulty waking, unusual drowsiness
- Seizure activity
- Clear fluid from nose or ears
- Vision changes, slurred speech, unsteady gait
- Behavioral changes or agitation [15]
Expected recovery
- Small contusions in mild TBI may resolve over weeks to months
- Post-concussive symptoms (headache, cognitive difficulty, fatigue) are common and may persist
- Patients with contusion/SAH/SDH cluster on CT have higher rates of incomplete recovery at 12 months [20]
- Restart anticoagulation no earlier than 14–90 days post-TBI depending on thrombotic vs. bleeding risk [5]
- Restart antiplatelet agents as early as 4 days post-injury if safe [5]
References
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