Pelvic ring fractures range from low-energy, stable injuries to life-threatening, hemodynamically unstable fracture-dislocations with mortality rates as high as 32% in severe cases and up to 36% in hemodynamically unstable patients requiring hemorrhage control interventions. [1-2] A multidisciplinary, protocol-driven approach is critical to reducing morbidity and mortality. [3]
1. History
- Mechanism of injury is paramount: high-energy (MVC, motorcycle crash, pedestrian struck, fall from height, crush injury) vs. low-energy (ground-level fall in elderly/osteoporotic patients) [4-5]
- Speed, direction of impact, seatbelt use, ejection, height of fall
- Ability to ambulate after injury
- Pain location: groin, hip, low back, sacral, perineal, suprapubic
- Urinary symptoms: hematuria, inability to void, blood at urethral meatus [6]
- Neurologic symptoms: lower extremity weakness, numbness, saddle anesthesia, bowel/bladder dysfunction
- Symptoms of hemorrhagic shock: lightheadedness, syncope, confusion, dyspnea
2. Alarm Features
- Hemodynamic instability (SBP <90 mmHg, HR >120 bpm) — mortality up to 36% [1][6]
- Open pelvic fracture (perineal/vaginal/rectal wound communicating with fracture) — mortality ~20–24% [7-8]
- Blood at urethral meatus or high-riding prostate (urethral injury) [6]
- Expanding perineal/scrotal hematoma
- Gross rectal bleeding or palpable bony spicules on rectal exam
- Progressive abdominal distension (concurrent intra-abdominal hemorrhage)
- Signs of the "lethal triad": coagulopathy, hypothermia, acidosis [6]
- Neurologic deficit in lower extremities (lumbosacral plexus injury)
3. Medications
- Tranexamic acid (TXA): consider early as adjunct for coagulopathy in hemorrhagic shock [9]
- Massive transfusion protocol: 1:1:1 ratio (pRBC:FFP:platelets) or whole blood [9-10]
- VTE prophylaxis: LMWH (enoxaparin 30 mg BID) or aspirin 81 mg BID — the PREVENT CLOT trial demonstrated aspirin was noninferior to LMWH for prevention of death from any cause after pelvic/extremity fractures. Initiate once hemostasis is achieved [10-11]
- Avoid anticoagulants until active hemorrhage is controlled
- Adequate analgesia: multimodal approach; avoid excessive opioids that may mask hemodynamic changes
- Caution with NSAIDs in the acute setting (bleeding risk, renal perfusion)
4. Diet
- NPO in the acute setting if operative intervention is anticipated
- Adequate protein and caloric intake during recovery to support fracture healing
- Calcium and vitamin D supplementation in elderly/osteoporotic patients
- Iron supplementation if significant blood loss anemia
5. Review of Systems
- GU: hematuria, dysuria, inability to void, vaginal bleeding
- GI: rectal bleeding, abdominal pain, inability to pass stool (rectal injury)
- Neurologic: lower extremity weakness/numbness, saddle anesthesia, erectile dysfunction
- Vascular: cold/pulseless extremity, expanding hematoma
- MSK: concurrent extremity fractures, spine pain, hip pain
- Constitutional: dizziness, syncope, altered mental status (hemorrhagic shock)
6. Collateral History and Family History
- Witnesses to mechanism (bystanders, EMS) — direction and magnitude of force
- Pre-injury functional status and ambulatory ability (especially in elderly)
- Anticoagulant/antiplatelet use
- History of osteoporosis or metabolic bone disease (fragility fractures in elderly may present with minimal trauma) [5][12]
- Prior pelvic surgery or radiation
- Family history of bleeding disorders or VTE
7. Risk Factors
- High-energy trauma: MVC (most common), motorcycle crash, pedestrian struck, fall from height [7]
- Elderly/osteoporotic patients: low-energy falls can cause significant pelvic ring disruption [5][12]
- Obesity: increases force transmission and complicates management
- Anticoagulant use: increases hemorrhage risk
- Tile C fracture pattern: independently associated with higher mortality (HR 3.6 for 90-day mortality) [2]
- Low GCS (≤8): independent predictor of early death (HR 4.9) [2]
- Increasing age: independent predictor of mortality [2][13-14]
8. Differential Diagnosis
- Hip fracture (femoral neck, intertrochanteric) — pain with log roll, shortened/externally rotated leg
- Acetabular fracture — may coexist; CT differentiates
- Hip dislocation — deformity, inability to move hip; requires urgent reduction
- Lumbar spine fracture — midline tenderness, neurologic deficits
- Retroperitoneal hemorrhage from other causes (aortic injury, renal laceration)
- Intra-abdominal solid organ injury — concurrent in up to 67% of pelvic fractures [13]
- Isolated pubic ramus fracture (stable, low-energy) vs. true ring disruption
- Pathologic fracture (metastatic disease) — consider in low-energy mechanism without osteoporosis
9. Past Medical History
- Prior pelvic or hip fractures/surgery
- Osteoporosis or osteopenia
- Malignancy (pathologic fracture risk)
- Bleeding disorders or anticoagulant use
- Chronic kidney disease (affects medication dosing)
- Prior DVT/PE (impacts VTE prophylaxis strategy)
- Pregnancy (pelvic binder use requires caution) [6]
10. Physical Exam
- Vitals: tachycardia and hypotension are late signs of hemorrhagic shock; monitor trends closely
- Inspection: perineal/scrotal ecchymosis (Destot sign), labial swelling, open wounds, leg-length discrepancy, rotational deformity
- Palpation: tenderness over symphysis pubis, iliac crests, sacrum, SI joints — posterior palpation has 98% sensitivity for posterior ring injury [15]
- Pelvic stability: gentle AP and lateral compression (perform once only; avoid repeated manipulation) [6]
- Rectal exam: assess for high-riding prostate, rectal bleeding, bony spicules
- Urethral meatus: blood suggests urethral injury — do NOT place Foley until injury excluded [6]
- Vaginal exam: in females, assess for lacerations (open fracture)
- Neurovascular: lower extremity pulses, motor/sensory exam (L5/S1 roots, sciatic nerve)
- Skin: Morel-Lavallée lesion (closed degloving injury over greater trochanter/flank)
11. Lab Studies
- Type and crossmatch — essential; anticipate massive transfusion
- CBC: serial hemoglobin (initial Hgb is not a sensitive marker of acute blood loss) [6]
- BMP: renal function, electrolytes
- Coagulation studies: PT/INR, PTT, fibrinogen
- TEG/ROTEM: point-of-care viscoelastic testing for targeted resuscitation in coagulopathy [6]
- Lactate and base deficit: markers of tissue hypoperfusion and shock severity
- Urinalysis: hematuria screening
- Blood gas: assess acidosis (component of lethal triad)
12. Imaging
- AP pelvis radiograph: first-line screening in hemodynamically unstable patients per ATLS; identifies major disruptions but has limited sensitivity (50–68%) [6]
- CT pelvis with IV contrast: gold standard — 100% sensitivity for bony fractures; identifies contrast extravasation (arterial blush), hematoma size, and associated injuries. A pelvic hematoma ≥500 cm³ should raise strong suspicion for arterial injury even without visible blush [6][16]
- CT with 3D reconstruction: aids surgical planning, particularly for sacral fractures and SI joint disruptions [6]
- CT angiography: when arterial hemorrhage is suspected
- Retrograde urethrogram: before Foley placement if urethral injury is suspected (blood at meatus, high-riding prostate, perineal hematoma) [6]
- Cystogram: if bladder injury suspected
- MRI: superior for occult posterior ring fractures in elderly/osteoporotic patients (detects up to 54% additional fractures missed by CT) [12]
- FAST/E-FAST: to exclude concurrent intra-abdominal hemorrhage; not sensitive for retroperitoneal bleeding [6]
- Pelvic X-ray may be omitted in hemodynamically stable patients proceeding directly to CT [6][17]
13. Special Tests
- Young and Burgess classification — the most widely used system, based on force vectors: [18-19]
- Lateral Compression (LC): most common (~60%); LC-1 (stable), LC-2/LC-3 (increasingly unstable)
- Anteroposterior Compression (APC): "open book"; APC-I (stable), APC-II/III (unstable)
- Vertical Shear (VS): cephalad hemipelvis displacement; highly unstable
- Combined Mechanism (CM): worst prognosis
- Tile/AO classification: Type A (stable), Type B (rotationally unstable), Type C (rotationally and vertically unstable) [6][18]
- WSES Classification: integrates anatomy + hemodynamics — Grade I (minor/stable), Grade II–III (moderate), Grade IV (hemodynamically unstable regardless of pattern) [6]
- Examination under anesthesia (EUA): useful for equivocal stability in LC-1 injuries — up to 40% found to be rotationally unstable [20]
- FAST/DPA: to rule out intra-abdominal hemorrhage as competing source [10]
14. ECG
- Obtain ECG in all trauma patients, particularly elderly
- Evaluate for signs of right heart strain (S1Q3T3, right axis deviation, RBBB) suggesting PE
- Tachycardia may be the earliest ECG finding of hemorrhagic shock
- Rule out cardiac contusion in high-energy blunt trauma (ST changes, arrhythmias)
- Pulseless electrical activity (PEA) in the setting of pelvic fracture suggests massive hemorrhage or tension pneumothorax
15. Assessment
Pelvic ring fractures represent a spectrum from benign, stable injuries (APC-I, LC-I) to life-threatening, unstable disruptions. Key assessment priorities:
- Hemodynamic status is the single most important determinant of management pathway [6]
- Mechanical stability (Young-Burgess/Tile classification) guides surgical decision-making [6]
- ~78% of patients with unstable pelvic ring fractures have at least one associated injury; 66% have injuries in ≥2 body regions [2]
- Hemorrhage sources: ~85% venous/bony, ~15% arterial [9]
- Mortality predictors: age, GCS ≤8, Tile C pattern, initial SBP, ISS [2][13-14][21]
- LC-1 fractures are the most common but are not always benign (8.2% mortality) [22]
- Highest 30-day mortality: LC-3 (19%), APC-3 (16%), VS (12%) [23]
16. Treatment Plan
Initial Stabilization (ED)
- ATLS primary survey; identify and address life threats
- Pelvic binder/sheet: apply immediately at level of greater trochanters in any suspected unstable pelvic fracture. Commercial binders are preferred over sheets. Remove as soon as possible (within 24 hours to avoid pressure necrosis) and replace with external fixation if indicated [6][9][24]
- Massive transfusion protocol: activate early; 1:1:1 ratio or whole blood [9-10]
- TXA: consider within 3 hours of injury [9]
- FAST/DPA: rule out intra-abdominal hemorrhage [10]
Hemorrhage Control
- Preperitoneal pelvic packing (PPP): for hemodynamically unstable patients not responding to binder + resuscitation; addresses venous bleeding [9-10][25]
- External fixation: provides rigid stability; required adjunct to PPP for effective counterpressure. Anterior frames for APC-II/III, LC-II/III; C-clamp for vertical shear (contraindicated in comminuted sacral fractures, iliac wing fractures, LC-type injuries) [6]
- Angioembolization: for arterial hemorrhage (contrast blush on CT); the only intervention independently associated with reduced mortality in a large national study. Selective embolization preferred over nonselective [1][10]
- REBOA: zone III occlusion as bridge in patients in extremis; promising but not yet shown to independently improve survival [1][9-10]
Definitive Fixation
- Stable patterns (APC-I, LC-I): nonoperative — weight bearing as tolerated, functional rehabilitation [6]
- Unstable patterns (APC-II/III, LC-II/III, VS, CM): surgical fixation — pubic symphysis plating for diastasis >2.5 cm; percutaneous iliosacral screws for posterior ring; spinopelvic fixation for vertically unstable sacral fractures [6]
- Timing: hemodynamically stable patients may undergo early fixation within 24 hours; physiologically deranged polytrauma patients should be delayed until after day 4 [6]
VTE Prophylaxis
- Up to 34% develop proximal DVT; up to 12% develop PE [10]
- Initiate pharmacologic prophylaxis (LMWH or aspirin 81 mg BID) as soon as bleeding is controlled [10-11]
- Mechanical prophylaxis (sequential compression devices) when pharmacologic prophylaxis is contraindicated [10]
- Consider extended post-discharge prophylaxis (up to 4 weeks) in high-risk patients [26]
Associated Injury Management
- Urology consult if Foley cannot be passed or urethral/bladder injury suspected [3][6]
- Fecal diversion (colostomy) for open fractures with rectal/perineal wounds [4][7]
- Wound care for Morel-Lavallée lesions
17. Disposition
- Admission (ICU): all hemodynamically unstable patients, those requiring massive transfusion, pelvic packing, angioembolization, or external fixation [2][13]
- Admission (floor/monitored bed): hemodynamically stable patients with mechanically unstable fractures requiring surgical planning; stable fractures with significant associated injuries
- Transfer: patients at non-trauma centers with unstable pelvic fractures should be transferred to a Level I trauma center after binder placement and initiation of resuscitation [10]
- Observation: isolated stable fractures (APC-I, LC-I) in patients with adequate pain control and ability to mobilize may be considered for short observation
- Discharge: rarely appropriate from the ED; only for truly isolated, stable, minimally displaced fractures (e.g., isolated pubic ramus fracture) in patients who can ambulate safely
- Orthopedic surgery consult: all pelvic ring fractures [3]
- Trauma surgery consult: all high-energy mechanisms, hemodynamic instability, or associated injuries
- Interventional radiology: for angioembolization when arterial blush identified [10]
- Urology: when GU injury suspected [3]
18. Follow Up / Return Precautions
- Follow-up: orthopedic/trauma surgery within 1–2 weeks for stable fractures managed nonoperatively; earlier for any change in symptoms
- Repeat imaging: follow-up radiographs at 2, 6, and 12 weeks to assess healing and alignment
- Return precautions — seek immediate care for:
- Increasing pain, inability to bear weight
- New or worsening leg weakness/numbness
- Signs of DVT/PE: unilateral leg swelling, chest pain, dyspnea
- Fever, wound drainage (if operative)
- Urinary retention, hematuria, or new incontinence
- Expected recovery: stable fractures typically heal in 6–12 weeks; unstable fractures requiring fixation may take 3–6 months for full recovery. Full recovery rates vary by classification: LC-1/LC-2 ~41–46%, VS ~31%, CM ~27% [23]
- Weight-bearing restrictions: per orthopedic guidance based on fracture pattern and fixation
- Physical therapy: early mobilization when safe; critical for functional recovery
- Long-term complications: chronic pain, gait abnormality, sexual dysfunction, urinary incontinence, malunion/nonunion, post-traumatic arthritis of SI joint
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