Koskinas I et al — Posterior Epistaxis Management: Review and Proposed Guidelines — Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol 2024
Hellenic Rhinological Society guidelines
SPA ligation as second-line, embolization outcomes, stepwise algorithm
van Horn N et al — CT Findings in Patients With Severe or Recurrent Epistaxis — PLoS One 2019
CT pathology found in only 1.9% of first-time severe epistaxis
Supports selective CT use rather than routine imaging
Péporté ARJ et al — ESR Essentials: Imaging in Nasal Obstruction and Epistaxis — Eur Radiology 2026
European Society of Head and Neck Radiology imaging recommendations
CTA preferred for vascular work-up, MRI for soft tissue/mass assessment
Hewett Brumberg EK et al — 2024 AHA/Red Cross Guidelines for First Aid — Circulation 2024
Updated first aid recommendations for epistaxis — 15–20 minutes pressure
Positioning — lean forward, pinch lower third of nose
Hughes JM et al — Risk Factors and Management Outcomes in Epistaxis — ANZ J Surgery 2023
Tertiary center experience — outcomes by anticoagulant type and management strategy
Supports risk stratification and individualized management approach
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