Nakamura T et al. Evaluating the TWIST Score and POCUS for Paediatric Testicular Torsion. Emerg Med J. 2026
Combined TWIST + POCUS performance in pediatric ED
Epidemiology and risk factors
Boettcher M et al. Differentiation of Epididymitis and Appendix Testis Torsion. Urology. 2013
Clinical and ultrasound differentiating features; seasonal incidence data
Coronas-Soucheiron M et al. Is Being Overweight a Risk Factor for Torsion of the Appendix Testis. Pediatric Emergency Care. 2024
OR 5.9 for weight percentile >75th vs <25th
Tanaka K et al. Testicular Appendage Torsion in Children. Pediatrics International. 2022
Surgical vs conservative outcomes; early surgery shortens hospitalization
Imaging
Deeg KH. Differential Diagnosis of Acute Scrotum with High-Resolution Duplex Sonography. Ultraschall in der Medizin. 2021
Ultrasound findings characterizing TAT vs testicular torsion vs epididymitis
Analgesia
Olejnik L et al. Pharmacologic Management of Acute Pain in Children. JAMA Pediatrics. 2025
Network meta-analysis supporting multimodal analgesia (NSAID plus acetaminophen)
Natural history
Holland JM, Graham JB, Ignatoff JM. Conservative Management of Twisted Testicular Appendages. J Urology. 1981
Original series establishing conservative management as standard of care
Kadish HA, Bolte RG. Retrospective Review of Pediatric Patients with Epididymitis, Testicular Torsion, and Torsion of Testicular Appendages. Pediatrics. 1998
Clinical differentiation and outcomes in pediatric acute scrotum
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