Long-term monitoring needed: subglottic stenosis may present weeks to months after injury
References
Guidelines and Key Sources
Primary references for laryngeal trauma management
Eskander A, de Almeida JR, Irish JC. Acute Upper Airway Obstruction. New England Journal of Medicine. 2019
Comprehensive review of upper airway obstruction including laryngeal trauma
Management algorithms for acute presentations
Comer BT, Gal TJ. Recognition and Management of the Spectrum of Acute Laryngeal Trauma. Journal of Emergency Medicine. 2012
Spectrum of injury classification and management principles
Timing of surgical repair evidence
Nganzeu C, Esce A, Abu-Ghanem S, Meiklejohn DA, Sims HS. Laryngeal Trauma. Otolaryngologic Clinics of North America. 2023
Current review of diagnosis and management strategies
Schaefer SD. Management of Acute Blunt and Penetrating External Laryngeal Trauma. The Laryngoscope. 2014
Original Schaefer-Fuhrman classification system
Blunt and penetrating injury management principles
Pincet L, Lecca G, Chrysogelou I, Sandu K. External Laryngotracheal Trauma: A Case Series and an Algorithmic Management Strategy. European Archives of Oto-Rhino-Laryngology. 2024
Algorithmic approach to airway management in laryngeal trauma
Nguyen HH, Tong J, Varone A, et al. Penetrating Laryngeal Trauma: Management of Severe Injuries Without Open Reduction Internal Fixation. The Laryngoscope. 2025
Emerging evidence for conservative surgical approach in penetrating injuries
Shi J, Uyeda JW, Duran-Mendicuti A, Potter CA, Nunez DB. Multidetector CT of Laryngeal Injuries: Principles of Injury Recognition. Radiographics. 2019
CT interpretation principles and multiplanar reconstruction utility
Becker M, Duboé PO, Platon A, et al. MDCT in the Assessment of Laryngeal Trauma: Value of 2D Multiplanar and 3D Reconstructions. AJR. 2013
12% fracture miss rate on axial-only CT; 2D/3D reconstructions required
Buch K, Takumi K, Curtin HD, Sakai O. CT-based Assessment of Laryngeal Fracture Patterns and Associated Soft Tissue Abnormality. European Radiology. 2021
Cricoid fracture associations and fracture pattern data
Mace SE. Blunt Laryngotracheal Trauma. Annals of Emergency Medicine. 1986
Landmark study: CT sensitivity 100% for laryngotracheal injury
Jalisi S, Zoccoli M. Management of Laryngeal Fractures: A 10-Year Experience. Journal of Voice. 2011
Voice outcome data: 83% good outcomes with surgical repair
Li H, Li Z, Zhao J, et al. Management of Paediatric Laryngotracheal Trauma. Journal of Laryngology and Otology. 2022
Pediatric-specific management considerations
Iarocci AL, Winters RD. Laryngeal Trauma: A Review of Current Diagnostic and Management Strategies. Current Opinion in Otolaryngology and Head and Neck Surgery. 2022
Current evidence synthesis and management algorithm
Jain U, McCunn M, Smith CE, Pittet JF. Management of the Traumatized Airway. Anesthesiology. 2016
Airway management principles for traumatized airway
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