01Approach to the Critical Patient/attcp42

Immediate Priorities

›Life-threatening complications requiring immediate action

›Acute compartment syndrome

›Pain out of proportion to injury

›Pain with passive dorsiflexion of toes

›Paresthesias in foot — peroneal nerve distribution

›Tense, woody compartments on palpation

›If suspected, emergent orthopedic surgery consultation for fasciotomy

›Open fracture

›Wound communicating with fracture site — even small puncture wounds

›Emergent orthopedic consultation required

›Antibiotic prophylaxis within 1 hour of injury

›Vascular compromise

›Absent or diminished distal pulses

›Cool, pale, or mottled foot

›Expanding hematoma in leg

›Emergent vascular surgery consultation

›Polytrauma assessment

›High-energy mechanism triggers full trauma evaluation

›ATLS primary and secondary survey

›Fat embolism syndrome risk in bilateral or high-energy fractures

Monitoring and Targets

›Neurovascular monitoring protocol

›Serial neurovascular exams every 1–2 hours for high-risk fractures

›Capillary refill time

›Sensation in dorsal and plantar foot

›Toe motor function

›Compartment pressure measurement if clinical suspicion

02History/hx43

Mechanism of Injury

›Injury mechanism characterization

›High-energy trauma

›Motor vehicle collision

›Motorcycle accident

›Pedestrian struck by vehicle

›Fall from height

›Low-energy trauma

›Rotational/twisting injury — sports (soccer, skiing)

›Low-energy fall in elderly or osteoporotic patients

›Stress fracture pattern

›Insidious onset of focal tibial pain

›Athletes with recent training escalation

›Military recruits

›Non-accidental trauma consideration in pediatric patients with inconsistent history

Symptom Characterization

›Primary symptoms

›Acute severe leg pain — immediate onset with trauma

›Inability to bear weight

›Visible deformity of leg

›Progressive swelling over first 24–48 hours

›Sensation of pop or snap at time of injury

›Open wound with visible bone or hematoma

›Alarm symptoms requiring urgent evaluation

›Numbness or tingling in foot — peroneal or posterior tibial nerve

›Foot or toe weakness

›Increasing pain despite elevation and analgesia

›Skin tightness or tension in leg compartments

03Physical Exam/exam36

Musculoskeletal Examination

›Tibial shaft inspection and palpation

›Visible angulation, shortening, or rotational deformity

›Open wound communicating with fracture site

›Swelling and ecchymosis along tibial shaft

›Crepitus on palpation

›Fracture site point tenderness

›Skin integrity — blisters, abrasions, contusions

Neurovascular Assessment

›Distal neurovascular status

›Dorsalis pedis and posterior tibial pulse quality

›Compare bilaterally

›If absent after reduction, emergent vascular evaluation

›Capillary refill in toes — normal less than 2 seconds

›Skin temperature and color of foot — cool or pale suggests vascular compromise

›Sensation

›Dorsal first web space — deep peroneal nerve

›Plantar foot — posterior tibial nerve

›Lateral foot — sural nerve

›Motor function

›Toe and ankle dorsiflexion — peroneal nerve

›Toe and ankle plantarflexion — posterior tibial nerve

Compartment Assessment

›Compartment syndrome examination

›Anterior compartment palpation — most commonly involved

›Firm, woody, tense consistency

›Pain with passive toe dorsiflexion

›Deep posterior compartment

04Differential Diagnosis/ddx38

Tibial Fracture Variants

›Fractures mimicking or coexisting with tibial shaft fracture

›Tibial plateau fracture — ICD-10 S82.1

›Intra-articular extension into knee

›Knee joint effusion

›Valgus or varus stress instability

›Tibial plafond (pilon) fracture — ICD-10 S82.87

›Distal articular involvement at ankle

›Typically high-energy axial load mechanism

›Tibial stress fracture — ICD-10 M84.362

›Insidious onset without acute trauma

›Focal tenderness, minimal swelling

›MRI required for diagnosis if X-ray negative

›Toddler fracture — ICD-10 S82.201

›Oblique non-displaced fracture in children aged 1–3 years

›Subtle on radiograph, may require bone scan

Soft Tissue and Vascular Emergencies

›Non-bony diagnoses to consider

›Acute compartment syndrome without fracture

›Crush injury, reperfusion after ischemia

›Tight cast or external compression

›Popliteal artery injury

›High-energy proximal tibial fractures

›Ankle-brachial index less than 0.9 warrants CTA

›Deep vein thrombosis

›Calf swelling and pain post-injury or post-operative

›Compression ultrasound for diagnosis

›Cellulitis or osteomyelitis

05Laboratory Tests/lt32

Trauma and Hematologic Assessment

›Complete blood count

›Baseline hemoglobin and hematocrit

›Serial monitoring for occult hemorrhage in high-energy injuries

›Transfusion threshold individualized based on clinical status

›Platelet count for surgical planning

›White cell count — baseline for open fracture with infection risk

›Coagulation studies

›INR and PTT — anticoagulated patients

›Reversal agent planning if emergent surgery required

›Thromboelastography or ROTEM in polytrauma with significant hemorrhage

Metabolic and Bone Health

›Metabolic panel

›Electrolytes and renal function — baseline before surgery and antibiotics

›Glucose — diabetes complicates wound healing

›Calcium and phosphate in elderly or fragility fracture patients

›Vitamin D level in fragility fracture pattern

›Replacement initiated if deficient to support fracture healing

›Inflammatory markers

›C-reactive protein and ESR — baseline for open fractures

›Serial monitoring for infection development

›Procalcitonin — if systemic infection concern

VTE Risk Assessment

›Thromboprophylaxis-related labs

›Renal function for enoxaparin dosing adjustment

›Anti-Xa level if monitoring LMWH in patients with renal impairment or extremes of weight

›D-dimer — not routinely indicated but may guide DVT work-up in low-probability cases

06Diagnostic Tests/dt67

Scoring Systems

›Tibial fracture classification systems

›AO/OTA Classification System

›Type A — simple fractures (A1 spiral, A2 oblique, A3 transverse)

›Type B — wedge fractures (B1 spiral wedge, B2 bending wedge, B3 fragmented wedge)

›Type C — complex/comminuted fractures (C1 spiral, C2 segmental, C3 irregular)

›Higher AO/OTA type highly predictive of acute compartment syndrome risk

›OTA/AO type C fracture cohort of 2885 fractures confirmed predictive validity

›Gustilo-Anderson Open Fracture Classification

›Type I — wound less than 1 cm, clean, minimal contamination

›Type II — wound 1–10 cm, moderate contamination, no extensive soft tissue loss

›Type IIIA — wound greater than 10 cm, adequate soft tissue coverage despite contamination

›Type IIIB — extensive soft tissue loss, periosteal stripping, requires local or free flap

›Type IIIC — arterial injury requiring vascular repair

›Guides antibiotic selection, debridement urgency, and reconstruction planning

›Johner-Wruhs Classification

›Functional outcome correlation with fracture pattern after internal fixation

›Predicts rotational and angular malunion risk

›Mangled Extremity Severity Score

›Score greater than or equal to 7 predicts need for amputation in severe open fractures

›Incorporates skeletal/soft tissue injury, limb ischemia, shock, and patient age

MRI

›MRI indications for tibial shaft fractures

›Stress fracture diagnosis when radiographs are negative or equivocal

›Sensitivity 90–100% for stress fractures

›Identifies periosteal reaction, marrow edema, cortical disruption

›Grading of stress injury guides return-to-activity decisions

›Pathological fracture evaluation

›Assessment for underlying bone lesion, marrow infiltration, or neoplasm

›Soft tissue injury characterization

›Ligamentous injury in associated knee or ankle pathology

›Muscle compartment edema in suspected compartment syndrome

›Vascular assessment

›MRA for suspected popliteal or tibial vessel injury when CTA unavailable

›Infection evaluation in subacute presentation

›Osteomyelitis differentiation from healing fracture

›Soft tissue abscess or sinus tract in delayed open fracture management

CT

›CT indications for tibial shaft fractures

›Fracture pattern characterization

›Comminution and fragment mapping for operative planning

›Intra-articular extension assessment at proximal or distal ends

›Rotation and alignment quantification

›Polytrauma assessment

›CT trauma survey per ACR Appropriateness Criteria for major blunt trauma

›CT angiography if vascular injury suspected — ABI less than 0.9

›Associated pelvic, spinal, or thoracoabdominal injuries

›Post-operative monitoring

›Implant position verification

›Fracture reduction assessment when plain films equivocal

›CT is not indicated for straightforward shaft fracture diagnosis — plain radiographs sufficient

›CT angiography of tibial vessels

›Indication — absent or diminished distal pulses after reduction

›Sensitivity 95–100% for popliteal and tibial vessel injury

Ultrasound

›Point-of-care ultrasound applications

›Fracture identification

›Cortical disruption sign — hyperechoic cortical line discontinuity

›Sensitivity 89.3% and specificity 91.1% compared to radiography for tibia and fibula fractures (Injury, 2017)

›Useful in resource-limited settings or when radiography unavailable

›Vascular assessment

›Duplex ultrasound for distal tibial and popliteal vessel patency

›Ankle-brachial index measurement with Doppler

›DVT surveillance

›Compression ultrasound for proximal DVT post-injury or post-operative

›Duplex evaluation of calf veins if symptomatic

›Soft tissue assessment

›Hematoma identification and characterization

›Wound track evaluation in open fractures

›Compartment pressure estimation

›Ultrasound not validated for compartment pressure measurement — clinical exam and manometry preferred

07Disposition/dispo37

Admission Indications

›Inpatient admission criteria

›Open fractures — all grades require operative debridement

›Gustilo I/II — debridement within 24 hours

›Gustilo III — urgent debridement as soon as feasible

›Suspected or evolving compartment syndrome

›Serial neurovascular exams every 1–2 hours

›Orthopedic surgery on call for fasciotomy

›Operative fractures awaiting surgical scheduling

›Displaced fractures requiring intramedullary nailing or plating

›Unstable fractures with loss of reduction risk

›Polytrauma with associated injuries

›Vascular compromise requiring operative repair

›Elderly patients with significant comorbidities requiring optimization

›Increased in-hospital mortality in elderly tibial shaft fractures documented (Injury, 2025)

›Inadequate pain control on oral medications

›Patients with unreliable neurovascular exam

›Intoxication, altered mental status, regional nerve block in place

Observation Indications

›Step-down or short-stay observation

›High-risk fracture patterns requiring monitoring for 24–48 hours

›Proximal tibial shaft — highest compartment syndrome risk

›Comminuted or high-energy closed fractures

›Patients with questionable compliance for non-weight-bearing

Discharge Criteria

›Criteria for safe ED discharge

›Closed, nondisplaced or minimally displaced fracture with acceptable alignment

›Angulation less than 5 degrees in any plane

08Treatment/t86

Immediate ED Management

›Initial stabilization

›Limb alignment and immobilization

›Gentle axial traction and realignment before splinting

›Posterior long leg splint with ankle at 90 degrees neutral

›Leg elevation above heart level

›Reassess neurovascular status after splinting

›Ice application over splint

›20 minutes every 2 hours for first 48 hours

Pain Management

›Analgesic strategy

›Parenteral opioids for acute severe pain

›Morphine IV 0.1 mg/kg, titrate to effect

›Fentanyl IV 1–1.5 mcg/kg for rapid onset

›Multimodal analgesia

›Acetaminophen 1000 mg IV or PO every 6 hours

›Ketorolac 15–30 mg IV — short-term use acceptable; debate regarding fracture healing limited to prolonged use

›Regional nerve blocks

›Femoral nerve block or adductor canal block for proximal pain

›Sciatic nerve block for distal tibial and ankle pain

›Exercise vigilance — regional blocks may mask compartment syndrome symptoms

›Avoid in patients at high compartment syndrome risk if monitoring unreliable

Antibiotic Prophylaxis for Open Fractures

›Open fracture antibiotic protocol

›Gustilo Type I and II — gram-positive coverage

›Cefazolin 2 g IV every 8 hours

›Initiate within 1 hour of injury

›Continue for 24 hours post-debridement

›Gustilo Type III — broad-spectrum coverage

›Cefazolin 2 g IV plus gentamicin 5 mg/kg IV daily

›Continue for 72 hours or until wound closure

›Farm or soil contamination — clostridial coverage

›Add penicillin G 4 million units IV every 4 hours

›Penicillin allergy

›Clindamycin 900 mg IV every 8 hours plus aztreonam 2 g IV every 8 hours

›Antibiotic prophylaxis guideline source

›American Association for the Surgery of Trauma Critical Care Committee Consensus (2023)

Operative Fracture Management

›Surgical treatment options

›Intramedullary nailing — standard of care for most tibial shaft fractures

›Reamed intramedullary nailing preferred for closed fractures

›Reamed nailing superior union rates versus unreamed in closed fractures

›Unreamed nailing may be preferred for Gustilo IIIB — lower devascularization risk

›Most operative tibial shaft fractures in Canadian survey managed with IMN

›External fixation

›Damage control orthopaedics in hemodynamically unstable polytrauma

›Gustilo IIIB or IIIC as bridge to definitive reconstruction

›Significant soft tissue injury precluding immediate internal fixation

›Plate fixation

›Distal tibial metaphyseal fractures — MIPO technique

›Proximal tibial shaft fractures with articular extension

›Fasciotomy for compartment syndrome

›Four-compartment fasciotomy via dual-incision technique

›Anterior and lateral compartments — anterolateral incision

›Superficial and deep posterior compartments — posteromedial incision

›Wound closure delayed 48–72 hours after decompression

Nonoperative Management

›Cast or splint treatment criteria

›Closed, nondisplaced, or minimally displaced stable fractures

›Long leg posterior splint initially — transition to functional brace at 4–6 weeks

›Cast immobilization failure rate higher in smokers and obese patients

›Acceptable alignment thresholds for nonoperative treatment

›Varus or valgus angulation less than 5 degrees

›Anterior or posterior angulation less than 10 degrees

›Shortening less than 10–12 mm

›Rotation less than 5 degrees

VTE Prophylaxis

›Thromboprophylaxis strategy

›Aspirin 81 mg BID

›PREVENT CLOT trial (NEJM, 2023) — noninferior to enoxaparin for operative extremity fractures

›Primary option for low-to-moderate VTE risk operative tibial fractures

›Enoxaparin 30 mg SC BID

›Standard for polytrauma and higher VTE risk patients

›Western Trauma Association Guidelines (2020)

›Duration through immobilization period — no firm outpatient duration consensus

›Mechanical prophylaxis

›Sequential compression device on contralateral limb

Wound Care for Open Fractures

›Open fracture wound management

›Wound irrigation with normal saline — remove gross contamination

›Sterile wet dressing application — do not pack wound

›No bedside wound exploration or probing

›Tetanus prophylaxis update if incomplete immunization

›Operative debridement timing

›Within 24 hours for Gustilo I and II

›As soon as feasible for Gustilo III — do not delay beyond 24 hours

›Cochrane review (2022) supports within 24 hours for infection reduction

Fracture Healing Support

›Healing optimization

›Calcium supplementation 1000–1200 mg per day

›Vitamin D 800–1000 IU per day

›Smoking cessation counseling — smoking is strongest modifiable predictor of nonunion

›Protein-rich diet for soft tissue repair

›Avoid NSAIDs longer than 2 weeks — theoretical concern for impaired bone healing with prolonged use

09Special Populations/sp66

Pregnancy

›Pregnancy-specific considerations

›Radiation exposure

›Radiograph of isolated lower leg — fetal radiation dose negligible

›Lead shielding of abdomen and pelvis for all radiographic imaging

›MRI preferred over CT for detailed characterization if needed — no ionizing radiation

›CT angiography — justify with clinical necessity; fetal dose typically less than 50 mGy

›Pharmacological considerations

›Opioid analgesia — acceptable for acute severe pain with monitoring

›NSAIDs — contraindicated in third trimester; risk of premature ductus arteriosus closure

›Acetaminophen — preferred analgesic adjunct in all trimesters

›Cefazolin — safe for antibiotic prophylaxis in open fractures; Category B

›Gentamicin — use with caution; aminoglycoside ototoxicity risk to fetus

›VTE risk

›Pregnancy is independent risk factor for DVT

›Enoxaparin preferred over aspirin for VTE prophylaxis in pregnant patients

›Warfarin contraindicated — embryopathy risk in first trimester

›Operative considerations

›Timing of surgery in consultation with obstetrics

›Left lateral tilt after 20 weeks gestation to prevent aortocaval compression

›Fetal heart rate monitoring perioperatively after 24 weeks

Geriatric

›Geriatric-specific considerations

›Fragility fracture pattern

›Low-energy mechanism — fall from standing height

›Underlying osteoporosis evaluation — DXA scan referral

›Vitamin D and calcium optimization

›Bisphosphonate therapy for osteoporosis management after fracture healing

›Mortality risk

›Elevated in-hospital mortality documented in elderly tibial shaft fractures (Injury, 2025 multicentre study)

›Perioperative cardiopulmonary risk assessment

›Anesthesia and medicine co-management

›Pharmacological cautions

›Opioid sensitivity — lower starting doses, titrate cautiously

›Renal impairment — adjust enoxaparin dosing, avoid NSAIDs

›Drug interactions — polypharmacy review

›Anticoagulation management — higher rates of warfarin, DOAC use

›Functional recovery

›Pre-injury mobility and functional baseline determine goals

›Physical therapy and rehabilitation planning from acute phase

›Falls prevention assessment and home hazard evaluation

›Cognitive impairment may limit non-weight-bearing compliance

Pediatrics

›Pediatric-specific considerations

›Growth plate considerations

›Salter-Harris classification for physeal involvement

›Growth arrest risk with physeal injury — long-term orthopedic follow-up

›Radiographs include growth plates of adjacent joints

›Age-specific fracture patterns

›Toddler fracture aged 1–3 years — oblique non-displaced tibial shaft fracture

›Subtle radiographic findings — may require bone scan or MRI

›High-energy tibial shaft fractures in adolescents — similar management to adults

›Non-accidental trauma

›Inconsistent or implausible history for age and mechanism

›Multiple fractures at different healing stages

›Child protective services notification and skeletal survey

›Compartment syndrome risk

›ACS risk after pediatric tibial shaft fractures studied in Journal of Pediatric Orthopedics (2020)

›Pain with passive stretch remains primary clinical indicator

›Regional anesthesia vigilance for masking compartment syndrome

›Treatment approach

›Nonoperative management with casting preferred for most pediatric tibial fractures

›Operative fixation for adolescents with unacceptable alignment or open fractures

›Flexible intramedullary nails preferred for skeletally immature patients

›Remodeling potential greater in younger children — accept larger degrees of angulation

›Weight-based dosing

›Morphine 0.05–0.1 mg/kg IV PRN pain

›Acetaminophen 15 mg/kg PO or IV every 6 hours

›Ibuprofen 10 mg/kg PO every 6–8 hours — avoid in children under 6 months

10Background/b77

Epidemiology

›Incidence and demographics

›Overall incidence approximately 16.9 per 100,000 per year (Injury, 2015)

›Most common long bone fracture

›Male incidence 21.5 per 100,000 versus female 12.3 per 100,000

›Peak incidence in males aged 10–20 years

›Growing subgroup of elderly patients with fragility fractures

›High-energy mechanisms predominate in young males — MVC, sports, motorcycle

›Open fracture epidemiology

›Approximately 20–30% of tibial shaft fractures are open

›Summary of 11,000 open tibia fractures over 4 decades (Journal of Orthopaedic Trauma, 2023)

›Infection rate 5–10% for Gustilo I/II, up to 50% for Gustilo IIIB/C

›Compartment syndrome incidence

›Acute compartment syndrome complicates 1–10% of tibial shaft fractures

›Meta-analysis 2025 — tibial fractures highest extremity compartment syndrome risk

›Proximal shaft location associated with higher ACS risk

›Outcomes

›Union typically at approximately 17 weeks for uncomplicated fractures

›Delayed union at approximately 35 weeks

›Nonunion at approximately 69 weeks (Archives of Orthopaedic and Trauma Surgery, 2001)

›Nonunion rate 2–10% after intramedullary nailing

›Return to sport 92% at 12–54 weeks after surgical treatment versus 67% at 28–182 weeks nonoperative (Sports Health, 2016)

Pathophysiology

›Injury mechanism and bone biomechanics

›Tibia anatomy vulnerability

›Subcutaneous anterior border — minimal soft tissue protection

›Limited periosteal blood supply anterolaterally

›Single segmental blood supply — nutrient artery enters at proximal diaphysis

›Fracture pattern by mechanism

›Torsional forces — spiral fractures with fibula intact

›Direct trauma — transverse or comminuted fractures

›Axial loading — segmental or comminuted patterns

›Fatigue loading — stress fractures in athletes and military recruits

›Four muscle compartments of the leg

›Anterior compartment — tibialis anterior, extensor hallucis longus, deep peroneal nerve

›Lateral compartment — peroneal muscles, superficial peroneal nerve

›Superficial posterior compartment — gastrocnemius, soleus, sural nerve

›Deep posterior compartment — tibialis posterior, flexor digitorum longus, posterior tibial nerve and vessels

›Compartment syndrome pathophysiology

›Increased intracompartmental pressure from hematoma and tissue edema

›Exceeds capillary perfusion pressure

›Ischemia of muscle and nerve within non-distensible fascial compartment

›Irreversible muscle necrosis after 6–8 hours of ischemia

›Nerve damage after 4–6 hours of ischemia

›Pulselessness and paralysis are very late signs indicating established ischemia

›Healing biology

›Four-phase healing — hematoma, inflammation, reparative, remodeling

›Periosteal blood supply critical for callus formation

›Factors impairing healing — smoking, diabetes, NSAIDs prolonged, poor nutrition, excessive motion

Therapeutic Considerations

›Operative versus nonoperative decision

›Intramedullary nailing indications

›Displaced unstable fractures

›Angulation beyond acceptable limits

›Segmental fractures

›Open fractures

›Bilateral tibial fractures

›Polytrauma patients for early mobilization

›Nonoperative treatment role in 2025

›Modern analysis (Injury, 2021) demonstrates limited role for closed treatment

›Failure rate high in patients who smoke, are obese, or have comminuted fractures

›Reserved for truly non-displaced stable fractures with reliable patients

›Reamed versus unreamed nailing debate

›Reamed IMN — superior fixation, higher union rates in closed fractures

›Unreamed IMN — reduced endosteal devascularization, preferred by some for open fractures

›Evidence base for VTE prophylaxis

›PREVENT CLOT trial (NEJM, 2023) — aspirin 81 mg BID noninferior to enoxaparin 30 mg BID

›Major extremity trauma research consortium RCT

›Aspirin appropriate for low-to-moderate risk operative extremity fractures

›Western Trauma Association Guidelines (2020) — enoxaparin remains standard for polytrauma

›Open fracture evidence

›Cochrane Review (2022) supports antibiotic initiation within 1 hour and debridement within 24 hours

›Antibiotic duration beyond 24 hours post-debridement does not reduce infection rate

›ICD-10 coding

›S82.201 — unspecified fracture of shaft of tibia, right, initial encounter

›S82.202 — unspecified fracture of shaft of tibia, left, initial encounter

›S82.221 — displaced transverse fracture of shaft of right tibia

›S82.231 — displaced oblique fracture of shaft of right tibia

›S82.241 — displaced spiral fracture of shaft of right tibia

›S82.251 — displaced comminuted fracture of shaft of right tibia

11Patient Discharge Instructions/pdi35

copy discharge instructions

›Discharge instructions for tibial shaft fracture

›Activity restrictions

›Non-weight-bearing on the injured leg — use crutches or walker as instructed

›Do not put any weight through the leg until your orthopedic surgeon approves

›Keep the injured leg elevated above heart level as much as possible

›Apply ice over the splint or cast for 20 minutes every 2 hours for the first 48 hours

›Splint and cast care

›Do not get the splint or cast wet

›Do not insert objects inside the cast or splint

›Do not remove or modify the splint or cast at home

›If the cast feels too tight, cracked, or broken, return to the emergency department

›Medication instructions

›Take pain medications as prescribed — do not exceed recommended doses

›Acetaminophen (Tylenol) every 6 hours as needed for pain

›NSAIDs (ibuprofen, naproxen) only if prescribed — take with food

›If prescribed antibiotics, complete the full course

›If prescribed blood clot prevention medication, take as directed

›Follow-up

›Orthopedic surgeon appointment within 1 week — critical to confirm fracture alignment

›Repeat X-rays will be taken at follow-up

›Do not miss your follow-up — loss of alignment can occur in the first 2–3 weeks

›Healing expectations

›Most tibial shaft fractures take 3–6 months to fully heal

›You will need imaging every few weeks to confirm healing progress

›Smoking significantly slows fracture healing — quitting smoking is strongly encouraged

›Eat a protein-rich diet and take calcium and vitamin D supplements to support healing

›Return to Emergency Department immediately for

12References/r29

Guidelines and Key Sources

›Primary clinical guidelines and landmark studies

›Larsen P, Elsoe R, Hansen SH, et al. Incidence and Epidemiology of Tibial Shaft Fractures. Injury. 2015

›Incidence 16.9 per 100,000/year; male predominance; peak incidence 10–20 years

›Major Extremity Trauma Research Consortium (METRC), O'Toole RV, et al. Aspirin or Low-Molecular-Weight Heparin for Thromboprophylaxis after a Fracture. NEJM. 2023

›PREVENT CLOT RCT — aspirin 81 mg BID noninferior to enoxaparin 30 mg BID

›Chan JK, Aquilina AL, Lewis SR, et al. Timing of Antibiotic Administration, Wound Debridement, and the Stages of Reconstructive Surgery for Open Long Bone Fractures. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2022

›Antibiotic within 1 hour, debridement within 24 hours reduces infection

›Appelbaum RD, Farrell MS, Gelbard RB, et al. Antibiotic Prophylaxis in Injury: AAST Critical Care Committee Consensus. Trauma Surgery and Acute Care Open. 2023

›Cefazolin 2 g IV for Gustilo I/II; add gentamicin for Gustilo III

›Mortensen SJ, Vora MM, Mohamadi A, et al. Diagnostic Modalities for Acute Compartment Syndrome of the Extremities: Systematic Review. JAMA Surgery. 2019

›Delta pressure less than 30 mmHg most reliable compartment syndrome threshold

›Cong B, Zhang H. Acute Compartment Syndrome in Tibial Fractures: A Meta-Analysis. BMC Musculoskeletal Disorders. 2025

›ACS complicates 1–10% of tibial shaft fractures; proximal location highest risk

›Ley EJ, Brown CVR, Moore EE, et al. Updated Guidelines to Reduce Venous Thromboembolism in Trauma Patients. Journal of Trauma and Acute Care Surgery. 2020

›Western Trauma Association — enoxaparin 30 mg BID standard for polytrauma

›Robertson GA, Wood AM. Return to Sport After Tibial Shaft Fractures: Systematic Review. Sports Health. 2016

›Surgical treatment 92% return-to-sport; nonoperative 67% return-to-sport

›Kozaci N, Ay MO, Avci M, et al. Comparison of POCUS and Radiography in Tibia and Fibula Fractures. Injury. 2017

›POCUS sensitivity 89.3%, specificity 91.1% for tibia/fibula fractures

›Karladani AH, Granhed H, Karrholm J, Styf J. Influence of Fracture Etiology and Type on Fracture Healing. Archives of Orthopaedic and Trauma Surgery. 2001

›Union at 17 weeks, delayed union at 35 weeks, nonunion at 69 weeks

›Azhar MS, Selim A, Daoub A, et al. Mortality From Tibial Shaft Fractures in the Elderly. Injury. 2025

›Multicentre study documenting elevated in-hospital mortality in elderly patients

›Swart E, Lasceski C, Latario L, et al. Modern Treatment of Tibial Shaft Fractures. Injury. 2021

›Limited contemporary role for nonoperative closed treatment

›Marsh JL, Slongo TF, Agel J, et al. Fracture and Dislocation Classification Compendium 2007. Journal of Orthopaedic Trauma. 2008

›OTA/AO classification system for tibial shaft fractures

Evidence & Review

Evidence & Review